Audio / Moving Image Media Products (first teaching 2022) Notes

In this section, we will explore the various practical techniques that producers use to create audio / moving image products. By gaining an understanding of these various techniques, you will be able to spot how they are used in audio / moving image products. You will then see how producers use these techniques to create meaning.

It is remarkable to what extent a director can convey meaning simply by the way in which they set up or move the camera. Meaning is often achieved through framing – this refers to the position of the camera in relation to the subject.

Shot types 

Different shots can be used to change the focus or perspective of a setting or person. This, in turn, determines the way in which audiences view a moving image:

• Long shot – taken from a distance so as to show the subject of a shot in its entirety and a large part of the location – often used to establish the location and characters of a new scene
• Medium shot – the subject is shot from a medium distance – often used to frame a person from the waist up so we can see their facial expression and body language simultaneously
• Close-up – a very intimate shot of a subject where the background is out of focus. This allows the audience to concentrate on the subject in detail – often used to highlight the emotions of a character
• Medium close-up – a shot halfway between a close-up and a medium shot that shows the subject clearly, without getting too close
• Extreme close-up – the subject is shot at very close range – it is often used to create an intense mood and draw attention to a specific part of the subject's face
• Overhead – a shot taken from above – often used to frame cars driving down a road
• Over the shoulder – a shot that is framed from behind one person, looking at another person. This is a typical shot used during a conversation between two characters.
• Point of view – a shot used to show what the character is looking at or how they see the world 

Camera angles 

The angling of the camera in relation to the subject can convey additional meaning to the audience. The right angle can reveal important information and convey a character's emotional state:

• Straight on – also known as frontal angle, this is where the camera is looking straight at the subject, creating a two-dimensional effect
• High angle – the camera is positioned up high and looks down at the subject. It often has the effect of belittling the subject and making them look smaller.
• Low angle – the camera is positioned below the subject. It is often used to make the subject appear powerful and domineering.
• Canted angle – also known as a Dutch angle, this is where the camera is tilted at a strange angle. It typically disorientates the viewer and conveys that 'all is not well'.
• Wide angle – the camera frames a wide section of horizontal space. It can be used to show a wide landscape and also physical distortion between objects.

Camera movements

These techniques are used when it is important for the camera to frame a moving subject. They can also be used to convey emotion or reveal new information:

• Panning – when the camera remains stationary but rotates on a horizontal axis – this might be used to keep a character in the frame as they walk across a room
• Tilting – when the camera remains stationary but rotates on a vertical axis – this might be used to reveal a new character by starting at their feet and gradually tilting up the body to reveal their face
• Tracking – in order to keep a moving subject in the frame, the camera is mounted on a cart which travels alongside the subject, creating a very smooth movement – this might be used to keep a moving vehicle in the frame
• Zoom in – a change in the camera lens's focal length giving the illusion that the camera is moving closer to the subject – this might be used to draw attention to a character's face as they tell an important story
• Zoom out – a change in the camera lens's focal length giving the illusion that the camera is moving further away from the subject – this might be used to slowly reveal the environment a character is in
• Handheld – when the camera is held by the operator as opposed to mounted on a tripod or dolly track – this usually results in a jerky effect, creating a sense of gritty realism 
• Crane – a dolly shot taken from a great height using a heavy piece of equipment that the camera is mounted to – this is often used to film battle scenes and live concerts

Mise en scène refers to the arrangement of people and objects within the camera frame. The term, often associated with film studies, describes the way in which a variety of visual elements are arranged in a scene, and how they can help to convey meaning to the audience. It is a French phrase that literally translates as 'putting onstage'. There are several elements that fall under the bracket of mise en scène:

• Costume – what a character's clothes convey about their environment, job, social class, etc.
• Hair – what a character's hairstyle conveys about their personality, era, social class, etc.
• Make-up – materials applied to the face used to either portray a certain appearance or improve appearance
• Props – objects used in the scene
• Production design / sets – artificial constructed scenery used to create a sense of where and when the event is taking place
• Figure expression – how a person in the frame conveys their emotions through facial expressions
• Body language – communicating emotion through body movements and gestures
• Blocking – the process of a director mapping out the character's actions in a scene before filming begins

Different types of lighting set-up

• Under – lighting the subject from below – often produces a haunting effect
• Overhead – lighting the subject from above – places emphasis on a specific subject
• Side – light that falls on the subject from the side – highly useful for creating visually dramatic mood lighting
• Fill – soft lighting that softens shadows within a scene
• High-key – lighting that creates low contrast between light and dark areas – it is often used on magazine covers to create a sense of fun and vibrancy
• Low-key – illuminates parts of the subject to create contrast between light and dark areas – often used in thrillers and horror films to create a sinister sense of mystery
• Silhouette – when the figure of a subject can be seen as a dark shape against a lighter background – often creates beautiful and poetic imagery
• Functional – lighting used for everyday purposes, e.g. to read or to find something
• Natural – lighting captured on film from natural sources, e.g. sunlight, street lamps, fireworks
• Chiaroscuro – a combination of the Italian words 'light' and 'dark' – this lighting technique is notable for the dramatic contrast it creates between light and shadows – it focuses attention, articulates space and brings out the 3D properties in an image

Key lighting terms 

• Contrast – the separation between the darkest and brightest areas of the image to create shadows and highlights
• Filters – used to overlay the image with a particular colour scheme
• Saturation – the intensity of a specific colour relative to its own brightness
• Desaturation – removing or limiting the intensity of a specific colour, i.e. making it appear more grey and muted
• Shadow – a dark area produced by a physical object between the light source and a surface
• Tone – refers to the lightness or darkness of a particular colour, e.g. soft, harsh
• Brightness – how light or dark an image is

Key terms relating to sound

• Diegetic – sound in audio or moving image media that comes from within the world of the media text, e.g. character dialogue, a gunshot
• Non-diegetic – sound in audio or moving image media that is not sourced from within the world of the media text – it has been added in post-production, e.g. music, ambient noise
• Sound fidelity – how faithful a sound is to its source, as perceived by the audience, e.g. the image of a car accompanied by the sound of an elephant would be a case of poor sound fidelity
• Levels – how loud or quiet the sounds in a media text are – this is often edited in post-production
• Sound mixing – the process of achieving effective balance between the many sounds that make up a media text. It usually involves a great deal of tweaking.  

Key elements of sound in audio / moving image media

• Sound effects – artificially produced sound that is not dialogue or music, e.g. a creaky door, burning flames
• Dialogue – words spoken between two or more characters in a media text
• Voice-over – off-camera commentary that is used in radio, television and film – usually this comments on the immediate action
• Jingle – a catchy fragment of music often associated with advertisements, also known as commercial music
• Aural motif – sound repeated throughout a media text that is suggestive of a particular theme or idea
• Bridge – where sound continues from one scene to the next, creating a sense of continuity
• Incidental music – music in a media text that is overshadowed by other elements. It is background music designed to add atmosphere.
• Aural signposting – this is when the setting or location of a radio show is established through audio features, e.g. the sound of birdsong might suggest a garden setting
• Wild track – non-diegetic sound effects in a radio programme that help establish a goofy or light-hearted tone, e.g. a drum riff when someone tells a joke

Key editing terms

• Speed – suggests how fast or slow the movement of a sequence is
• Pace – the length and rate of cutting between shots
• Rhythm – the flow and movement of the overall story for a moving image product
• Continuity – the predominant style of editing commonly used to emphasise a smooth transition of time and a logical progression through a narrative
• Flow – helps keep the audience orientated and the action moving from one scene to the next
• Tone – refers to the level of brightness
• Balance – making adjustment of colour to make the image more natural

Key editing techniques

• Slow motion – shows a moving image at a slower rate than how it was filmed
• Montage – a series of short shots form a sequence that condenses space, time and information
• Flashbacks – visually recount events that happened before the story’s primary sequence
• Cut – a method of alternating quickly between different camera shots without any added effect
• Fade – a gradual transition from one shot to another, from a blank screen into a shot, or vice versa, e.g. fade to black at the end of a film is common
• Transition – any change from one shot to the next, e.g. wipe, dissolve, cross-fade
• Synchronising – matching sound to the visual on the screen
• Audio / visual effects – refers to sound or graphics that are created and added in the post-production stage to enhance the look and feel of the media product and to appeal to audiences; examples include CGI