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3.1.2.3 Principles and theories of learning and performance GapFill

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Understanding the theories that underpin the learning of a movement skill could help coaches and performers to apply the same principles to their own training. There are four key theories of learning outlined below. 

1.

Bandura’s theory of   operant conditioninginsightcognitivesocial/observational learning suggests learning occurs by watching others, and consists of four stages:

  1.  AttentionMotivationRetentionMotor reproduction: focusing on each distinct component of a skill performed by a significant other. This person is usually someone held in high regard by the observer or who possesses a high level of ability.
  2.  RetentionMotivationAttentionMotor reproduction: storing this skill performance in memory and being able to recall the relevant information. This is enhanced by the relevance and significance of the performance.
  3.  AttentionMotivationMotor reproductionRetention: physical replication of the skill. This will require the underlying motor skills that are fine-tuned in accordance with the specific performance that is to be copied. Therefore, it should be similar to the observer’s physical ability.
  4.  Motor reproductionAttentionMotivationRetention: the observer must be persistent in learning and mastering the skill. The greater respect the observer has for the performer, the more determined the performer will be.
2.

Skinner's  insightoperant conditioningcognitivesocial/observational theory of learning describes how behaviour is shaped by practising skills and associating actions with their response, often through trial and error. This relationship can be represented by the stimulus–response bond. 

Reinforcement aims to   breakweakenstrengthenadapt this bond, and can be classed as positive and negative:

  • Positive reinforcement is where successful performance is rewarded. This encourages the individual to exhibit the same behaviour when faced with a similar situation in the future. For example, a swimming coach might praise their athlete who displays a good butterfly stroke technique, inspiring the athlete to use the same technique in the next race.
  • Negative reinforcement also aims to reward successful performance, but instead by removing an unpleasant stimulus. For the same swimming example, the coach might allow the athlete time off over the weekend.
 FeedbackAdvicePraisePunishment is designed to weaken the stimulus–response bond, preventing an undesirable performance from happening again in the future. This can involve a negative stimulus, where if the swimmer were to perform a poor breaststroke, the coach might implement a tough weekend of training. It could also involve removing something of value, such as withdrawing the swimmer from the next competition in order to focus on getting their technique right.
3.  Operant conditioningInsightCognitiveSocial/observational theory of learning involves self-understanding and critical thinking about how a process works, rather than shaping it through trial and error. This method involves problem-solving to search for meaning in information using memory stores, past experiences and understanding. This mental process is known as perception. One such branch of this theory is  operantoutsightgestaltobservation, which is a set of beliefs that the skill is perceived as a whole to allow the individual to gain an understanding of the requirements in their entirety. This 'insight' into the skill allows the individual to link together the subroutines and improve their efficiency in execution. 
4.Vygotsky's social development theory of  social learningconstructivismbehaviourismcognition suggests that social interaction and the culture of the individual heavily influence cognitive development. This involves observing and imitating actions of surrounding individuals that are more  confidentskilledoptimisticvulnerable than the individual. Vygotsky suggested that the process of interpsychological learning helps the performer to internally consider how to improve upon the skill. A key aspect of this is the zone of  personal disadvantageproximal developmentperformance deteriorationpublic defeat (ZPD), which are the tasks that an individual is unable to perform alone but are able to achieve with the appropriate guidance.

It consists of three stages:
  1.  What can't be done yet?What did I use to be able to do?What can be done alone?What are my aims? For example, a gymnast might be able to get into a handstand position using a wall.
  2. What can be done with help? For example, the same gymnast might be able to hold a handstand position for five seconds if they have assistance getting into the position from a coach.
  3.  What did I use to be able to do?What can be done alone?What can't be done yet?What is my training history? For example, the gymnast might not be able to walk in the handstand position.


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