Cloning and biotechnology GapFill

 AllelesEmbryosDaughtersClones are genetic copies of an individual, all of which are identical to the parent. They are often produced artificially using  meristemconnectivefloralvascular tissue from plants as it is free from viruses, although sterilisation still needs to take place to ensure that any fungi or bacteria are killed. The process is relatively fast, but results in a population of individuals lacking  enzymesgenetic variationorganelleschromosomes, which leaves them susceptible to disease.

Natural clones are less common in animals, although identical twins do result from  aseptic techniquegenetic fingerprintingembryo splittingdihybrid crosses. This process can be replicated artificially, although a disadvantage of this is that the  gendergenusphenotypesize of each individual will be unknown until birth. Somatic cell nuclear transfer avoids this issue and enables clones to be made of adults by fusing an empty egg cell with the nucleus of a somatic adult cell using  a syringean alkalia plasmidan electric shock. This will cause the cell to start developing by  genolysismitosismeiosisapoptosis.

Biotechnology uses organisms to create useful products. Examples of this include brewing, using yeast, and making yoghurt and cheese using certain bacteria. Myco  carbohydrateproteinsinacid can be harvested from Fusarium fungi grown in  firespoolsfermentersgels. This product is harvested in the  deathstationarylagdecline phase of a microorganism's growth curve because it is a secondary metabolite produced only when resources are limited.

Enzymes may often be  immobilisedcooleddenaturedduplicated to make them easier to reuse in reactions. While there are some techniques which bind enzymes weakly to clay or glass beads,  hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactionsionic bondingdisulfide bondingcovalent bonding ensures there is less chance of enzymes leaking into the reaction mixture as the bonds are much stronger.